Sociology 101.
The historical events influencing contemporary Sociology have been broad and complex beginning almost certainly with the Reformation in 1540, Modernisation and thereafter the Enlightenment, 1715-1789 industrialisation in 1750 and secularisation in 1960. These historical events were transformational in the way they shaped human society.
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The Enlightenment-the neo classical age, historically known as the age of conscientious scientific, philosophical and political discourse, defined - European society during the 18th century. This was a period with a paradigm shift in reasoning and intellectual contemplation and ultimately in a historical context sociologically pre-eminent in the wealth of sociological thought developed in the period. Modernisation was born of the Enlightenment, and as a result increased levels of education and mass media, both catalysts for democratic political institutions. Transportation and methods of communication advanced technologically and became more accessible. Auguste Comte (1798-1857) the father of sociology was born 10yrs after this period however the groundwork had already been laid.
The industrial revolution, seen the beginning of factory systems and mass production. The factory system led to division of labour where workers had separate and specialised small tasks to carry out. Additionally, industrialisation led led to urbanisation and a move from country living to the cities where employment was high. During the industrial revolution sociology developed with the ideas of Auguste Comte who named the discipline of studying society as sociology argued, “that society to fix its problems must use the scientific method based on facts and evidence”. Sociologists of note during this time were Herbert Spencer who defined society as a living organism, Karl Marx and his conflict theory and Emile Durkheim the first to apply the scientific method to sociology.
The sociological imagination is a concept described in C. Wright Mills 1959 book, The Sociological Imagination. Mills refers to three key elements of society: structure, history, and biography. Structure refers to the important elements of society and their relationship to each other and how and in what ways they differ from other societal orders. As well as the defining of any specific feature for its longevity and change. Human history refers to how any specific- element we are examining, influence and are acted on within and by the historical period it moves. Biography refers to the types of human nature disclosed in the behaviour and character observed in this society and period.
Private troubles relate to personal choices we have control over within the personal character of the individual and the relationship with those closest to the individual’s life, friends, family, groups, work and school. Individuals have a degree of influence on outcomes on a personal level or biography.
Social issues or public issues are societal issues of structure, organisation and processes which lie beyond the control of the individual in their personal circumstance. Public issues are to be understood in a historical context.
The real advantage of the sociological imagination is to distinguish between personal social issues and the larger structural societal public issues, for example in the USA students do not have tuition fees paid this creates financial hardship. The students cannot afford to buy text- books this may seem like a personal choice however in times of economic downturn employment opportunities become scarce to make up enough money to afford text- books for college or university. This leaves the student at a disadvantage through a structural issue which creates a situation for limited success.
The macro model approach in sociology are structural perspectives and analyse society as a whole. The approach looks at how norms and deviances are established and how they are handled in society, they look at what factors cause social change and the consequences of the changes.
When looking at functionalism social stability is necessary to have a vigorous society. Social institutions execute important functions and slow change is desirable as rapid change can have a destabilising effect. For example, when homosexuality was illegal the institution of law did not intervene in the social norm and value system. There was a systematic change in societal attitudes slowly overtime until it reached critical mass, at which point the law changed and homosexuality was considered an accepted norm.
The micro model approach to sociology is a social action perspective and analyses society on a group and individual level. The theory is interested in interpretive meaning and places more emphasis on human agency. For example, micro sociology would study the difference between men and women in the workplace and their priorities. Where men and women would have different outlooks on occupation. How choice of occupation would shape their priorities and time with family. It would look at hours worked and choice differences between men and women.
Both approaches are similar in respect they both study societal interactions whether individual or structural and both use scientific methods of investigation. They differ in that macro theories study structural constructs (institutions) top down and micro theory studies the individual or group interactions.
Functionalism is a structural consensus theory, developed from the writings of sociologist Emile Durkheim 1858 -1917. Durkheim argued that society shapes the individual and society has a mind of its own, a reality outside the individual consciousness. In his perspective it was not the consciousness of the individual that moulded behaviour of the individual but the commonly held beliefs and values of society.
Functionalism regards the workings of society akin to the human body (The biological analogy of society) Where if one part is dysfunctional it will affect the rest of the body. Institutions act like the organs of the human body and problems in one area may stem from symptoms in another for example, high rates of crime, high unemployment and poverty. For society to function properly it needs balance of social cohesion and social control.
Functionalism explains behaviour through the idea of social structure, places an emphasis on integration, harmony, stability and continuity and assumes there are patterns of behaviour. The consensus is based on agreement of standards of behaviour and of norms and values through parents, education, religion, peers and media. These are the features that instil a sense of community. Changes in society are slow, they evolve with norms and values of society. Inevitably functionalism accepts there will be some element of inequality which leads to conflict, as all individuals are unique and have different skills and talents.
Functionalism ignores individual and group interaction and finds it hard to explain conflict. And assumes there is always a value consensus.
Symbolic interactionism was first described by sociologist Herbert Blumer in 1969. A micro approach to sociology that examines the interactions between individuals and how those interactions shape the world through symbols and language and the way people make sense of their society. The theory sees individuals and their interactions as shaping society instead of being acted upon.
Language is an important feature of symbolic interactionism as language can be thought of as a collection of symbols organised in a structure to communicate. Language is essential to coordinate and convey ideas and to connect with other individuals or groups.
Definition of events are crucial as similar events and people cannot all be defined in the same manner. Interactions with preconceived ideas can stereotype individuals and situations therefore the interaction process can help to define them.
The looking glass self is a concept, interactionists use to describe how individuals see themselves reflected in others. Individuals will define themselves as they see others. Interactionists see society as a stage and individuals are taking part in the theatre of society a concept known as dramaturgical analysis. Society is ambiguous and fluid with the potential for creativity and improvisation by the actors in social situations within a group and as individual interactions.
Interactionists believe we learn our roles from significant others for example parent’s, educator’s colleagues and peer group. And that our self- image comes from interactions with others.
Karl Marx’s sociological theory is predicated on the concept of structural conflict. Marx believed society was in a constant state of conflict. The theory has two antagonists the bourgeoisie and the proletariat. Marx states that all stratified societies have two classes a ruling class (Bourgeoisie) and a subject class the (proletariat) the ruling class derives their power from the ownership of production and the subject class from their ownership of labour. In Marx’s theory the ruling class exploit the subject class and this is where the conflict lies.
He believed the institutions created in society such as law, politics and economy by the ruling class were vehicles of domination to serve their interest to the detriment of the subject class. Although Marx identified the conflict within the two classes, he believed they relied upon each other.
The subject class must sell their labour to survive and the capitalists depend on the labour to facilitate production. The capital invested in the means of production creates profit for the ruling class and the subject class receive wages, Marx believes this is exploitation of the subject class as he believes capital creates nothing, only labour creates wealth.
Marx believed eventually the proletariat would overthrow and seize the means of production and power and this would create a classless society.
Marx’s theory is more of a romantic notion than a real possibility, the proletariat are never cohesive enough and the circumstances to create this cohesion within the group will never materialise to cause a revolution. Weber pointed to this flaw in that the proletariat that Marx speaks of are too diversified in sub classes and all have their unique view on their private troubles of milieu. Weber states he can see no reason why those sharing a similar class situation should necessarily develop a common identity, recognise shared interests and take collective action to further those interests. Weber suggests manual workers who are dissatisfied with their class situation may respond in a variety of different ways. (Weber 1947) Although it is clear to see the conflict, with societies elite using their position to further enrichment and inter alia a notable imbalance in power.
References
Giddens, A., 1979. Structuralism and the Theory of the Subject. In Central Problems in Social Theory (pp. 9-48). Palgrave, London
Houghton Millin Harcourt,(2020)The founders of sociology https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/sociology/the-sociological-perspective/the-founders-of-sociology#:~:text=The%20French%20philosopher%20Auguste%20Comte,religious%2C%20metaphysic%20anda [Accessed24 Nov 2020]
Marx 1970 [1867], 1974 [1909], Marx and Engels (1848), and Bottomore and Rubel (1963).
Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the Creation of the Modern World (London, 2001), p. 3.
Theoretical perspectives in sociology(2012)theoretical perspectives in sociology, https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/sociology-brief-edition-v1.1/s04-03-theoretical-perspectives-in-so.html [Accessed 26 Nov 2020]
Symbolic interactionism,(2015)Iowa state University, https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=engl_reports#:~:text=The%20importance%20of%20symbols%20to,%2Dconcepts%2C%20and%20our%20minds. [Accessed 30 Nov 2020]
Zeitlin, M., (1974). Corporate ownership and control: The large corporation and the capitalist class. American journal of Sociology, 79(5), pp.1073-1119.
The historical events influencing contemporary Sociology have been broad and complex beginning almost certainly with the Reformation in 1540, Modernisation and thereafter the Enlightenment, 1715-1789 industrialisation in 1750 and secularisation in 1960. These historical events were transformational in the way they shaped human society.
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