The Huguenot's migration from France to Britain reorienting historical predestinations for French and British society 1550-1750.
Two centuries of Huguenot migrations 1550-1750 negatively impacted France while favouring England
Introduction
The Huguenot migrations of the 16th and then 17th centuries were largely a reaction to violent religious persecution, although economic variables were contributory to the socioeconomic and sociopolitical milieu and Huguenot outflows from France over two centuries (The Huguenot Society, 2023). In terms of geographical location, the British Isles have been well placed from antiquity as one of refuge. A part of Europe, though separated by the channel fossé and one where the embargoed peoples from other nations have looked to her island citadel as one for protection and to make their home (Smiles,1867).
The home of the Britons as Smiles, (1867) remarks, is where the Saxons brought their industry, the Norsemen their energy, and the Flemish and French their skill, and spirit of liberty. The Huguenot migrations over two centuries 1550-1750 accentuated London’s rise to the greatest city in Europe, becoming the most energetic economic and cultural nexus in the world (Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, 2018). Two centuries of Huguenot migrations negatively impacted France socially, economically, and politically while for England they enhanced the socio-economic order and gifted a political advantage. This essay will initially provide an overview of the chronological events of religious persecution of the Huguenots, their churches, settlements, and socio-economic variables that prevented and accentuated their forced migration. The latter section will explore how those migrations fit into theories of migration. Concluding the Huguenot migrations were predominantly forced migration although they intersect with all migration theories in a non-mutually exclusive manner.
Chronology of events leading to Huguenot migrations
During 16th century France there was a remarkable increase of those who took on the new faith Protestantism, notably emerging from the work of Martin Luther in the early 16th century. Ordained into the priesthood of the Catholic church, Luther later rejected the teachings of the church of Rome, after which he became a seminal figure in the Protestant Reformation. John Calvin, who was a pastor and writer during the Reformation, established a consensus in Switzerland, Germany, Scotland, and Holland and was the dominant figure in French Calvinist Protestantism (Hannah, 1984). The church of England separated from the church of Rome under the reign of King Henry VIII 1509-1547, bringing England into the reformation movement. These events were to mark the predestination of the Huguenot migrations to England, and the wider world in Europe, America, and Africa.
The first significant migration of the Huguenots was precipitated by the French Wars of Religion from 1562-1598 and was the dominant push factor of the initial outflow of Huguenots. Although, there were movements of French protestants beforehand with the first record of a French protestant church congregation in England made in 1548 (Gwynn,1985). Marking a turning point for French Protestants was the St Bartholomew Day Massacre 1572, an eruption of violence catalyzed by fifty years of religious persecution and organized by Catherine de Medici and carried out by Roman Catholic nobles and citizens against the Huguenots (Soman, 2012).
Estimates converge around 3,000-5,000 victims among Huguenot nobles and citizens alike (Mark, 2022; Smiles, 1867). The plot by Medici the queen mother was initially to kill General Gaspard Coligny of the Huguenot armies who like many protestants converged in Paris to celebrate the wedding of Marguerite de Valois to Henry Navarre first in line, Prince of the Blood, also a protestant, in the predominantly Catholic Paris. Their marriage was to solidify the details agreed upon in the peace of Germaine 1570 (Soman, 1974). As word of the massacre spread throughout France, the violence was repeated enthusiastically in several cities, for example, Rouen, Lyon, Orleans, and Bordeaux, and among the many other provinces (Benedict, 1978).
In 1550, King Edward VI of England by granting his protection and recognition of the Church of Foreigners in London as equal to the Church of England increased the process of migration (The Huguenot Society, 2023). The protection and recognition granted by King Edward VI can be presumed to have added to the pull factor for Huguenots seeking refuge in England. The Huguenots were largely given a good welcome from their English protestant brethren.
Emigration was tailed off in the early 17th century due to the Edict of Nantes of 1598, the last edict of pacification that marked the end of the eight religious wars engulfing the period. The Edict of Nates was the tenth edict issued during the 1562-1598 wars, with each act punctuating periods of peace. During this era, these agreements were enacted to end the violence and hostilities between Catholics and Protestants and maintain civil peace (Jouhaud, 2006). The Edict of Nantes signed by Henry IV of France, was to prohibit any discrimination against the protestant Huguenots, although not in the modern sense of tolerance. Access to public office was excluded in the Edict preventing Huguenots from attaining public office positions, (Jouhaud, 2006) and restricting their number in a variety of professions (Norwood, 1969; McCloy,1951). Developments over the next decades were characterized by a fragile truce until in the 1620s civil wars erupted throughout the decade under King Louise the XIV (Britannica, 2024). The Huguenots were defeated, and the peace of Alez was signed in 1629. In the proceeding years the Huguenots remaining rights under the Edict of Nates were confirmed by royal declaration in 1643. However, the Catholic clergy continued to deprive the Huguenots of their rights. Harassment and forced conversion of thousands of Protestants continued for years after. During this period there were additional limited migrations of Huguenots to England (Gwynn, 1985; Smiles, 1887). Charles II of England 1630-1681 organized and facilitated the settlement and naturalization of Huguenots (Cottret, 1991; Musee, 2024). The revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 marked the beginning of the largest outflow of Huguenots from France.
In 1685 King Louise the XIV revoked the Edict of Nates leading to the exodus of almost 400,000 French Protestants, the push factor for the second significant outflow migrating to England, Prussia, Holland, Africa, and the Americas (Brittanica, 2024). It must be added the Edict of Fontainebleau that revoked the protections of the Edict of Nantes also forbade the laity to leave the country under pain of death or by a worse fate in conscription to the French Galley ships that often led to the same fate, although was preceded by obscene torture (McCloy, 1951).
The scale of refugees that left France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes is difficult to calculate, with estimates in differing historical accounts ranging from 200,000- 900,000 in total. With between 50,000 migrating to England (Huguenot Society, 2024) and as Smiles (1867) estimates 120,000 that entered England, and with Gwynn (1985) estimated between 40,000 and 50,000 entering England. The refugees traversed all social strata and occupations from landed gentry to ministers from mechanics to artisans and from labourers to soldiers (Smiles, 1867). At this point French-speaking protestant communities had been established in England for over 100 years.
Socio-economic pull factors
The numbers of refugees by historical scale were the highest since the Anglo-Saxons entered Britain in the 5th century after the retreat of the Roman empire (Smiles, 1867). Most of the newly arriving Huguenot refugees settled in London, and the outskirts of Canterbury and Westminster where food was cheaper, and control of guilds was not robustly enforced (Gwynn,1985). By 1700 several settlements had formed in London, east through west from Spitalfields in the east to Soho in the west, with additional settlements in the north of the city.
The Huguenots were mostly artisans and bourgeoise possessing commercial skills with high rates of literacy. Gwynn (1985) notes, that those skills were highly sought after and transferable; had they been a peasant or rural group their experiences in exile would have taken on a different form. As it was, they were welcomed by many nations in Europe and abroad. By the 1680s in France, lawyers, doctors, and surgeons of the protestant faith were barred from holding public positions of employment. This was in addition to seeking safe refuge from religious persecution, a socio-economic pull factor for many Protestants in professional occupations. When called upon to tend to the sick the former mentioned were to provide notice without which would incur a fine of five hundred Livres. However, with notice meant that a magistrate would visit and demand a recanting of their protestant faith (Cotrett,1991). Midwives of the Protestant faith were disallowed from attending births, reasoning, that they did not believe in baptism; therefore, they could not Christen children in emergency situations where a child may die (Smiles, 1867).
Economic and military impact on France
Charles Weis proposed the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and the resultant exodus of Huguenot Protestants was the main feature in France’s economic crisis from 1680-1720 (McCloy, 1961). Furthermore, Professor Warren Scoville concludes that the extensive migrations of Huguenots no doubt hobbled France’s economy during this era, however, was not as effective in destroying France’s economy as Louise the XIV, his wars, the famines, and ill-thought-out economic policies of France (McCloy, 1961). The convergence of the negative economic effects attributed to the impact of Huguenot migration is illustrated by the knowledge French Huguenots mostly from the bourgeoise, had no hope of entrance to the Court, or the military, then adapted to merchant trade in the provinces (Scoville, 1953). This socio-economic internal migration contributed greatly to the kingdom of France through trade and industry and Huguenot mercantile and financial entrepreneurship with sixty percent of France’s industry and commercial interests under their control. In addition, Huguenots were a dominant group as skillful artisans, being amongst the richest merchants in all sections of the arts. Moreover, they held a monopoly over foreign trade, owning most of the ships that sailed from Bourdeau to the Americas and almost absolute control over the wine trade and in silks, oils tobacco cheese, salt and fish (Scoville, 1953).
One intendent at Tours noted the decline in French silk weaving was in large part attributed to the migration of the protestant weavers. This sentiment can be transposed over multiple professions and factories when the owners on migrating, their staff followed, leaving large sections of Frances's economy poorer by loss of tax revenue, and loss of skilled occupations, alongside capital flight (Evans, 2014). The French ambassador in London writing to Louise XIV in 1687, exclaimed, that 960,000 Louise d’ors had been sent to the Royal Mint and converted to English currency (Smiles, 1867).
Between 1689-1702 England was at war with France, and although it cannot be assumed the Huguenot migrations to England were a major part of Frances's defeat, it can however be extrapolated, they were notable additions to England's army (Gwynn, 1985). Frances's loss of up to 10,000 soldiers and 500 officers was England’s gain and those soldiers, due to their harsh treatment in France, could be expected to fight against King Louise XIV and his army with vigor and enthusiasm. The gallantry of the refugees is well documented in several battles including the battle of the Boyne, in Ireland, Flanders, and the Spanish peninsula (Glozier 2007; Gwynn, 1995). Without the Huguenots England may not have been able to defeat Louise XIV.
The Church
Estimates suggest that in the year after the St Bartholomew Day massacre in France, there were around 5,315 members of a variety of foreign churches in London and the surrounding areas. Although many French ministers joined the church of England others of equal education became preachers among the alternate protestant branches (Gwynn 1985). While in Rye, Maidstone, Southampton, Canterbury, Colchester, and Norwich there were an additional 5,000 Huguenot church members in 1573, bringing the number to well above 10,000 of which most were religious refugees (Gwynn, 1985). In the generation after, the number of English-born Huguenots grew significantly, reaching its peak in the 1590s in London and the provinces. In the west of the city there were only two congregations, the Savoy and des Grecs in 1685, in the east of the city there were none. However, by 1700 there were fourteen in the west and nine in the east end (Smiles, 1867).
Differences in the Anglican Church practices encountered by the Huguenots were not so pronounced and neither were they fully convergent with Calvinist doctrine. However, they were free to practice their religion with significant autonomy granted by Royal charter from King Edward VI (Huguenot Society, 2023). The reformed faith in Europe made efforts to console its different branches, alongside the Church of England participating in creating a united front (The Huguenot Society 2023). The assimilation to life in England by Huguenots was aided by the Anglican Church.
Considering the bulk of Huguenots were in a state of deprivation due to leaving all their worldly possessions behind on fleeing from France, steps were taken to limit their misery. The Monarchy nudged Anglican churches to make collections, 1681-1684 raising £90,000 (Sunstrom, 1976). In the following year, William III addressed parliament to release further funds to lessen the plight of the Huguenots, resulting in a further £15,000 which was to be released each year on request from the crown. Sunstrom (1976) suggests this was revealing as to the extent to which the crown was committed to Huguenot assimilation. Those who had the funds to start businesses hired as many of their fellow refugees as was possible, and those who were employed helped to support those who were not (Smiles, 1867). The help given to refugees was, as Smiles (1887) comments, quickly rendered unnecessary due to the considerable effort by the refugees in helping themselves. In addition, the refugees helped each other, the rich gave to the poor and the poor helped each other.
How Huguenots fit into current theories of migration
The migration of Huguenot refugees traverses all current migration theories but is predominantly in a forced migration typology. Political persecution and civil war are primary predictors of forced migration (Crawley and Skleparis, 2018). Politics and religion were synonymous during this historical era. The Huguenot migrations personify the push-pull features of Everett Lee’s (1966) model of migration. Push factors conform with religious persecution and discrimination in France (Gwynn, 1985; Smiles 1867; Cottret, 1991) that impelled Huguenots to leave France. Pull factors, for example, religious tolerance, recognition, and protection from the crown offered in England, enticed them to resettle accompanied by economic factors. Huguenot migrations show how religious persecution (push) combined with the promise of religious autonomy and economic opportunities (pull) was a significant influence on large-scale population movement, aligning with the core of Lee’s theoretical framework, where migrants use the plus and negative factors in their rationalisation process on whether to remain or move (Lee, 1966).
.
New Economics Migration theory
New economics migration theory has limited explanatory power in the historical context of the Huguenot migrations as they differ significantly from the contemporary world. Therefore, the concept of a standardized, unified household making collective decisions may not fully capture the decision-making dynamics within Huguenot communities. The focus of NMT is the maximization of individual income, where families act collectively to maximize income and minimize risks (Stark and Bloom, 1985). They strategically send members to locations with better economic prospects, with migrants sending back remittances to support those remaining in their home country. This approach emphasizes migration as a risk-diversification and income-maximizing strategy for the broader family unit, rather than solely focused on the individual (Stark and Bloom, 1985).
The theory presents insights into modern labour migration patterns in family and household decision-making in the context of economic disparities. However, its application to Huguenot historiography and associated migrations is more nuanced in that most families migrated together during the 16th and 17th centuries. However, there were those who had left France for England and the Americas who joined the Protestant international diaspora. The Huguenot merchants of the cosmopolitan protestant international, with their freight, sent their sons and nephews across the world widening their trading circles and creating networks (Hintermaier, 2000). Letters between merchants may have contained tedium on prices, commodities, and transactions, although behind those letters remained family relationships. It was common for Huguenot merchants to send a family member abroad to trading posts in preventing fraud and make good on payment. When persecution intensified in the 1680s Huguenot colonies grew in England and Holland where the Huguenot merchants were larger than those in French ports (Hintermaier, 2000). While most Huguenot refugees migrated with their whole family, the merchants had the ways and means to send family members ahead in aid of remittances to be guaranteed and sent home. Stark and Bloom (1985) suggest that patterns of remittances can be best explained by an inter-temporal confined contract arrangement between the family and the migrant.
Chain migration
Chain migration theory, as articulated by Tilly (1997), is a process where earlier migrants hailing from an original community support later migrations from the same group. The pioneers, in this case, the Huguenots, establish themselves in their new location, building new networks and sending back resources and information to assist others from their communities. Huguenot churches were the primary network source that helped establish their congregations in England, alongside their factories and businesses (Muylaert, 2017). As in new economics theory, we see merchants taking advantage of their networks and protestant international ties. Early merchants and professionals as well as the laity likely through connections to the church would facilitate information transfer and resources being sent home to help those who wish to follow and support them on arrival. Tilly (1997) suggests individuals make choices limited by the networks and resources built up in their pasts and the pasts of their friends and kin, and the choices they make constrain future choices for them, their kin, and associates. While chain migration theory fits the Huguenot migrations there are important caveats to consider. In comparison to modern-era chain migration where drivers are family reunification, Huguenot migrations were less extensive and systematic, however, for the period were exceptional. And while social networks played a part in Huguenot migrations, the central driver was religious identity. Although some families migrated together the religious community served as the central axis network, (Muylaert, 2017) not necessarily immediate family members (Hutton 2020). While chain migration theory encapsulates particular features of Huguenot migration and the part early refugees and their social networks played, in keeping with the historical context, the primary driver for Huguenot migration was religious persecution and displacement.
Conclusion
For the Huguenot refugees it should be noted their motivations are different than those of voluntary migration. In addition, it must be recognized that motivations can differ from one person to the other. The economic impact of Huguenot migration was negative for France and was positive for England. Indeed, the Huguenot migrations contributed to the loss of market domination in silk weaving, glass making, watchmaking and white paper (Gwynn, 1887; Smiles 1867) with England then dominating silk weaving and glass making markets. Furthermore, it is likely the migrations bore some influence on the outcome of war with France. The Huguenot migrations are mostly in a forced migration typology and due to religious war and persecution led to displacement which were the push factors, although additionally, encompasses characteristics from alternate theories of migration. Rarely is people's migration situated in one particular theory and often can be placed traversing multiple theories. Desires and mobility are features of all migrations formed by macrostructural change (de Haas, 2021). Social phenomena must then be perceived in the historiographical context in which they reside and, thereby cannot be encapsulated by a unilinear or simple set of rules or theories (de Haas, 2021). In this regard, Huguenot migrations are no different, and as an aside, it is in this forced migration typology interesting to note that in Huguenot migrations, the term refugee first entered the English language. The word asylum was to come much later in the 18th century, although the notion of protecting persecuted people was not lost on the countries that welcomed the Huguenots and gave them safe harbour. In their outflows over two centuries with the ebb and flow of religious persecution Huguenot migrations no doubt impacted the course of European history with predestinations being rewritten.
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The Huguenot Society, (2023) Huguenot society: Huguenot History, available online at: Huguenot Society :: Huguenot History [Accessed 20 March 2024] factor in France over two centuries of Huguenot outflows (The Huguenot Society, 2023). In terms of geographical location, the British Isles have been well placed from antiquity as one of refuge. A part of Europe, though separated by the channel fossé and one where the embargoed peoples from other nations have looked to her island citadel as one for protection and to make their home (Smiles,1867).
The home of the Britons as Smiles, (1867) remarks, is where the Saxons brought their industry, the Norsemen their energy and the Flemish and French their skill, and spirit of liberty. The Huguenot migrations over two centuries 1550-1750 accentuated London’s rise to the greatest city in Europe, becoming the most energetic economic and cultural nexus in the world (Ormrod, Lambert, and Mackman, 2018). Two centuries of Huguenot migrations negatively impacted France socially, economically and politically while for England they enhanced the socio-economic order and gifted a political advantage. This essay will initially provide an overview of the chronological events of religious persecution of the Huguenots, their churches, settlements, and socio-economic variables that prevented and accentuated their forced migration. The latter section will explore how those migrations fit into theories of migration. Concluding the Huguenot migrations were predominantly forced migration although they intersect with all migration theories in a non-mutually exclusive manner.
Chronology of events leading to Huguenot migrations
During 16th century France there was a remarkable increase of those who took on the new faith Protestantism, notably emerging from the work of Martin Luther in the early 16th century. Ordained into the priesthood of the Catholic church, Luther later rejected the teachings of the church of Rome, after which he became a seminal figure in the Protestant reformation. John Calvin, who was a pastor and writer during the reformation, establishing a consensus in Switzerland, Germany, Scotland and Holland and was the dominant figure in French Calvinist Protestantism (Hannah, 1984). The church of England separated from the church of Rome under the reign of King Henry the VIII 1509-1547, bringing England into the reformation movement. These events were to mark the predestination of the Huguenot migrations to England, and the wider world in Europe, America and Africa.
The first significant migration of the Huguenots was precipitated by the French wars of Religion from 1562-1598 and was the dominant push factor of the initial outflow of Huguenots. Although, there were movements of French protestants beforehand with the first record of a French protestant church congregation in England made in 1548 (Gwynn,1985). Marking a turning point for French Protestants was the St Bartholomew day massacre 1572, an eruption of violence catalyzed by fifty years of religious persecution and organized by Catherine de Medici and carried out by Roman Catholic nobles and citizens against the Huguenots (Soman, 2012).
Estimates converge around 3,000-5,000 victims among Huguenot nobles and citizens alike (Mark, 2022; Smiles, 1867). The plot by Medici the queen mother was initially to kill general Gaspard Colgny of the Huguenot armies who like many protestants converged in Paris to celebrate the wedding of Marguerite de Velois to Henry Navare first in line, Prince of the blood, also a protestant, in the predominantly Catholic Paris. Their marriage was to solidify the details agreed in the peace of Germaine 1570 (Soman, 1974). As word of the massacre spread throughout France, the violence was repeated enthusiastically in several cities, for example, Rouen, Lyon, Orleans and Bourdeax and among the many other provinces (Benedict, 1978).
In 1550, King Edward VI of England by granting his protection and recognition of the Church of Foreigners in London as equal to the Church of England increased the process of migration (The Huguenot Society, 2023). The protection and recognition granted by King Edward VI can be presumed to have added to the pull factor for Huguenots seeking refuge in England. The Huguenots were largely given a good welcome from their English protestant brethren.
Emigration tailed off in the early 17th century due to the Edict of Nantes of 1598, the last edict of pacification that marked the end of the eight religious wars engulfing the period. The Edict of Nates was the tenth edict issued during the 1562-1598 wars, with each act punctuating periods of peace. During this era, these agreements were enacted to end the violence and hostilities between Catholics and Protestants and maintain civil peace (Jouhaud, 2006). The Edict of Nantes signed by Henry the IV of France, was to prohibit any discrimination against the protestant Huguenots, although not in the modern sense of tolerance. Access to public office was excluded in the Edict preventing Huguenots from attaining public office positions, (Jouhaud, 2006) and restricting their number in a variety of professions (Norwood, 1969; McCloy,1951). Developments over the next decades were characterized by a fragile truce until in the 1620s civil wars erupted throughout the decade under King Louise the XIV (Britannica, 2024). The Huguenots were defeated, and the peace of Alez was signed in 1629. In the proceeding years the Huguenots remaining rights under the Edict of Nates were confirmed by royal declaration in 1643. However, the Catholic clergy continued to deprive the Huguenots of their rights. Harassment and forced conversion of thousands of Protestants continued for years after. During this period there were additional limited migrations of Huguenots to England (Gwynn, 1985; Smiles, 1887). Charles II of England 1630-1681 organized and facilitated the settlement and naturalization of Huguenots (Cottret, 1991; Musee, 2024). The revocation of the Edict of Nantes 1685 marked the beginning of the largest outflow of Huguenots from France.
In 1685 King Louise the XIV revoked the Edict of Nates leading to the exodus of almost 400,000 French Protestants, the push factor for the second significant out flow migrating to England, Prussia, Holland, Africa and the Americas (Brittanica, 2024). It must be added the Edict of Fontainebleau that revoked the protections of the Edict of Nantes also forbid the laity to leave the country under pain of death or by a worse fate in conscription to the French Galley ships that often led to the same fate, although was preceded by obscene torture (McCloy, 1951).
The scale of refugees that left France after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes is difficult to calculate, with estimates in differing historical accounts ranging from 200,000- 900,000 in total. With between 50,000 migrating to England (Huguenot Society, 2024) and as Smiles (1867) estimates 120,000 that entered England, and with Gwynn (1985) estimating between 40,000-50,000 entering England. The refugees traversed all social strata and occupations from landed gentry to ministers from mechanics to artisans and from labourer’s to soldiers (Smiles, 1867). At this point French speaking protestant communities had been established in England for over100 years.
Socio-economic pull factors
The numbers of refugees by historical scale were the highest since the Anglo-Saxons entered Britain in the 5th century after the retreat of the Roman empire (Smiles, 1867). Most of the newly arriving Huguenot refugees settled in London, and the outskirts of Canterbury and Westminster where food was cheaper, and control of guilds was not robustly enforced (Gwynn,1985). By 1700 several settlements had formed in London, east through west from Spitalfields in the east to Soho in the west, with additional settlements in the north of the city.
The Huguenots were mostly artisans and bourgeoise possessing commercial skills with high rates of literacy. Gwynn (1985) notes, those skills were highly sought after and transferable; had they been a peasant or rural group their experiences in exile would have taken on a different form. As it was, they were welcomed by many nations in Europe and abroad. By the 1680s in France, lawyers, doctors and surgeons of the protestant faith were barred from holding public positions of employment. This was in addition to seeking safe refuge from religious persecution, a socio-economic pull factor for many Protestants in professional occupations. When called upon to tend to the sick the former mentioned were to provide notice without which would incur a fine of five hundred Livres. However, with notice meant that a magistrate would visit and demand a recanting of their protestant faith (Cotrett,1991). Midwives of the Protestant faith was disallowed from attending births, reasoning, they did not believe in baptism; therefore, they could not Christen children in emergency situations where a child may die (Smiles, 1867).
Economic and military impact on France
Charles Weis proposes the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, and the resultant exodus of Huguenot Protestants was the main feature in Frances economic crisis from 1680-1720 (McCloy, 1961). Furthermore, Professor Warren Scoville concludes that the extensive migrations of Huguenots no doubt hobbled Frances economy during this era, however, was not as effective in destroying Frances's economy as Louise the XIV, his wars, the famines and ill-thought-out economic policies of France (McCloy, 1961). The convergence of the negative economic effects attributed to the impact of Huguenot migration is illustrated by the knowledge French Huguenots mostly from the bourgeoise, had no hope of entrance to the Court, or the military, then adapted to merchant trade in the provinces (Scoville, 1953). This socio-economic internal migration contributed greatly to the kingdom of France by trade and industry and Huguenot mercantile and financial entrepreneurship with sixty percent of Frances industry and commercial interests under their control. In addition, Huguenots were a dominant group as skillful artisans, being amongst the richest merchants in all sections of the arts. Moreover, they held a monopoly over foreign trade, owning most of the ships that sailed from Bourdeau to the Americas and almost absolute control over the wine trade and in silks, oils tobacco cheese, salt and fish (Scoville, 1953).
One intendent at Tours noted the decline in French silk weaving was in large part attributed to the migration of the protestant weavers. This sentiment can be transposed over multiple professions and factories when the owners on migrating, their staff followed, leaving large sections of Frances's economy poorer by loss of tax revenue, loss of skilled occupations, alongside capital flight (Evans, 2014). The French ambassador in London writing to Louise XIV in 1687, exclaimed, 960,000 Louise d’ors had been sent to the Royal mint and converted to English currency (Smiles, 1867).
Between 1689-1702 England was at war with France, and although it cannot be assumed the Huguenot migrations to England were a major part in Frances's defeat, it can however be extrapolated, they were notable additions to England's army (Gwynn, 1985). Frances's loss of up to 10,000 soldiers and 500 officers was England’s gain and those soldiers, due to their harsh treatment in France, could be expected to fight against King Louise XIV and his army with vigor and enthusiasm. The gallantry of the refugees is well documented in several battles including the battle of the Boyne, in Ireland, Flanders and the Spanish peninsula (Glozier 2007; Gwynn, 1995). Without the Huguenots England may not have been able to defeat Louise XIV.
The Church
Estimates suggest that in the year after the St Bartholomew day massacre in France there were around 5,315 members of a variety of foreign churches in London and the surrounding areas. Although many French ministers joined the church of England others of equal education became preachers among the alternate protestant branches (Gwynn 1985). While in Rye, Maidstone, Southhampton, Canterbury, Colchester and Norwich there were an additional 5,000 Huguenot church members in 1573, bringing the number to well above 10,000 of which most were religious refugees (Gwynn, 1985). In the generation after, the numbers of English born Huguenots grew significantly, reaching its peak in the 1590s in London and the provinces. In the west of the city there were only two congregations, the Savoy and des Grecs in 1685, in the east of the city there were none. However, by 1700 there were fourteen in the west and nine in the east end (Smiles, 1867).
Differences in the Anglican Church practices encountered by the Huguenots were not so pronounced and neither were they fully convergent with Calvinist doctrine. However, they were free to practice their religion with significant autonomy granted by Royal charter from King Edward VI (Huguenot Society, 2023). The reformed faith in Europe made efforts to console its different branches, alongside the Church of England participating in creating a united front (The Huguenot Society 2023). The assimilation to life in England by Huguenots was aided by the Anglican Church.
Considering the bulk of Huguenots were in a state of deprivation due to leaving all their worldly possessions behind on fleeing from France, steps were taken to limit their misery. The Monarchy nudged Anglican churches to make collections, 1681-1684 raising £90,000 (Sunstrom, 1976). In the following year William III addressed parliament to release further funds to lessen the plight of the Huguenots, resulting in a further £15,000 which was to be released each year on request from the crown. Sunstrom (1976) suggests this was revealing as to the extent to which the crown was committed to Huguenot assimilation. Those who had the funds to start businesses hired as many of their fellow refugees as was possible, and those who were employed helped to support those who were not (Smiles, 1867). The help given to refugees was, as Smiles (1887) comments, quickly rendered unnecessary due to the considerable effort by the refugees in helping themselves. In addition, the refugees helped each other, the rich gave to the poor and the poor helped each other.
How Huguenots fit into current theories of migration
The Migrations of Huguenot refugees traverses all current migration theories but is predominantly in a forced migration typology. Political persecution and civil war are primary predictors of forced migration (Crawley and Skleparis, 2018). Politics and religion were synonymous during this historical era. The Huguenot migrations personify the push pull features of Everett Lee’s (1966) model of migration. Push factors conform with religious persecution and discrimination in France (Gwynn, 1985; Smiles 1867; Cottret, 1991) that impelled Huguenots to leave France. Pull factors, for example religious tolerance, recognition and protection from the crown offered in England, enticed them to resettle accompanied by economic factors. Huguenot migrations show how religious persecution (push) combined with the promise of religious autonomy and economic opportunities (pull) was a significant influence for large scale population movement, aligning with the core of Lee’s theoretical framework, where migrants use plus and negative factors in their rationalisation process on whether to remain or move (Lee, 1966).
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New Economics Migration theory
New economics migration theory has limited explanatory power in the historical context of the Huguenot migrations as they differ significantly from the contemporary world. Therefore, the concept of a standardized, unified household making collective decisions may not fully capture the decision-making dynamics within Huguenot communities. The focus of NMT is the maximization of individual income, where families act collectively to maximize income and minimize risks (Stark and Bloom, 1985). They strategically send members to locations with better economic prospects, with migrants sending back remittances to support those remaining in the home country. This approach emphasizes migration as a risk-diversification and income-maximizing strategy for the broader family unit, rather than solely focused on the individual (Stark and Bloom, 1985).
The theory presents insights into modern labour migration patterns in family and household decision making in the context of economic disparities. However, its application to Huguenot historiography and associated migrations is more nuanced in that mostly families migrated together during the 16th and 17th century. However, there were those who had left France to England and the Americas who joined the Protestant international diaspora. The Huguenot merchants of the cosmopolitan protestant international, with their freight sent their sons and nephews across the world widening their trading circles and creating networks (Hintermaier, 2000). Letters between merchants may have contained tedium on prices, commodities and transactions, although behind those letters remained family relationships. It was common for Huguenot merchants to send a family member abroad to trading posts in preventing fraud and making good on payment. When persecution intensified in the 1680s Huguenot colonies grew in England and Holland where the Huguenot merchants were larger than those in French ports (Hintermaier, 2000). While most Huguenots refugees migrated with their whole family, the merchants had the ways and means to send family members ahead in aid of remittances to be guaranteed and sent home. Stark and Bloom (1985) suggest that patterns of remittances can be best explained by an inter-temporal confined contract arrangement between the family and the migrant.
Chain migration
Chain migration theory, as articulated by Tilly (1997), is a process where earlier migrants hailing from an original community support latter migrations from the same group. The pioneers, in this case the Huguenots, establish themselves in their new location, building new networks and sending back resources and information assisting others from their communities. Huguenot churches were the primary network source that helped establish their congregations in England, alongside their factories and businesses (Muylaert, 2017). As in new economics theory we see merchants taking advantage of their networks and protestant international ties. Early merchants and professionals as well as the laity likely through connections to the church would facilitate information transfer and resources being sent home to help those who wish to follow and support them on arrival. Tilly (1997) suggests individuals make choices limited by the networks and resources built up in their pasts and the pasts of their friends and kin, and the choices they make constrain future choices for them, their kin and associates. While chain migration theory fits the Huguenot migrations there are important caveats to consider. In comparison to modern era chain migration where drivers are family reunification, Huguenot migrations were less extensive and systematic, however, for the period were exceptional. And while social networks played a part in Huguenot migrations, the central driver was religious identity. Although some families migrated together the religious community served as the central axis network, (Muylaert, 2017) not necessarily immediate family members (Hutton 2020). While chain migration theory encapsulates particular features of Huguenot migration and the part early refugees and their social networks played, in keeping with the historical context, the primary driver for Huguenot migration was religious persecution and displacement.
Conclusion
For the Huguenot refugees it should be noted their motivations are different than those of voluntary migration. In addition, it must be recognized that motivations can differ from one person to the other. The economic impact of Huguenot migration was negative for France and was positive for England. Indeed, the Huguenot migrations contributed to the loss of market domination in silk weaving, glass making, watchmaking and white paper (Gwynn, 1887; Smiles 1867) with England then dominating silk weaving and glass making markets. Furthermore, it is likely the migrations bore some influence on the outcome of war with France. The Huguenot migrations are mostly in a forced migration typology and due to religious war and persecution led to displacement which were the push factors, although additionally, encompasses characteristics from alternate theories of migration. Rarely is people's migration situated in one particular theory and often can be placed traversing multiple theories. Desires and mobility are a feature of all migrations formed by macro structural change (de Haas, 2021). Social phenomena must then be perceived in the historiographical context in which they reside, thereby cannot be encapsulated by a unilinear or simple set of rules or theories (de Haas, 2021). In this regard, Huguenot migrations are no different as an aside, it is in this forced migration typology interesting to note that in Huguenot migrations, the term refugee first entered the English language. The word asylum was to come much later in the 18th century, although the notion of protecting persecuted people was not lost on the countries that welcomed the Huguenots and gave them safe harbour. In their outflows over two centuries with the ebb and flow of religious persecution Huguenot migrations no doubt impacted the course of European history with predestinations being rewritten.
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